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OSSE Ed Digest
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Vol. 4, Issue 11
December 2007
Bringing urban P-16 education resources to policymakers, parents, advocates, and district and school staff in the District of Columbia
Research on DC Schools
National Lessons Learned
New Ideas
The Office of the State Superintendent of Education does not endorse the views expressed in the resources and reports contained in the OSSE Ed Digest.
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While urban schools face multiple challenges – including high poverty rates, diverse student populations, and sometimes unsafe and inadequate physical facilities – many are able to create strong positive learning environments which support academic achievement. Some note “the feel” of such schools as an appreciable indicator of the levels of learning taking place. Researchers and practitioners define this school climate as the quality and character of school life which includes several important dimensions: safety, teaching and learning, relationships and environment. Research also reveals that safe, caring, participatory and responsive school climate fosters great attachment to school, as well as providing the foundation for social, emotional and academic learning. Given the relationship between connectedness to school and adolescent health and academic outcomes, positive school climate development may also be viewed as an important tool for reducing the number of students who become disconnected or alienated and eventually drop out of school. This issue of the OSSE Digest presents a range of research and information on school climate.
Organizations
Research
 
Organizations
Research
A considerable number of bullying prevention and intervention programs are being implemented in elementary schools across the United States and worldwide. However, although the majority of aggressive interchanges between students occur in the playground and lunchroom contexts, many well-known outcome measures of bullying are not particularly sensitive to those unstructured settings. The authors used a participatory action research framework to partner with playground and lunchroom personnel and community members to conduct an extensive scale development study, which resulted in the creation of the Playground and Lunchroom Climate Questionnaire (PLCQ). An initial psychometric study of the PLCQ was conducted to assess school climate variables that may affect children's social and behavioral functioning at school from the perspective of playground and lunchroom personnel. Results from the study suggest that the PLCQ measures two school context variables: (a) structure for activities and monitoring, and (b) staff collaboration. Suggestions for combining the PLCQ with more traditional measures to guide bullying prevention and intervention programming are discussed.
Cooper and Smith dispel five myths about bullying and outline a prevention program that must include all staff, parents, students, and the community. Contrary to what many people believe, it can be difficult to distinguish bullying from rough play, and bullying includes verbal or group exclusion; it involves girls as well as boys; there are many more victims than it often appears, and all those who observe the bullying feel an unsafe environment; adults do not see much of the bullying that occurs, and many students do not report it when it happens; and students must be taught the difference between tattling (trying to get someone in trouble) and reporting (keeping someone safe). School staff need a written discipline policy that they then uniformly enforce. This policy should: declare the school's commitment to a safe, caring, and respectful learning environment; clearly define bullying with examples; state consequences of bullying; and provide a framework for recognizing and responding to bullying.
Chronic Teacher Turnover in Urban Elementary Schools (2004)
This study examines the characteristics of elementary schools that experience chronic teacher turnover and the impact of turnover on a school’s working climate and ability to effectively function. Based on evidence from staff climate surveys and case studies, it is clear that high turnover schools face significant organizational challenges. Schools with high teacher turnover rates have difficulty planning and implementing a coherent curriculum and sustaining positive working relationships among teachers. The reality of these organizational challenges is particularly alarming, given that high turnover schools are more likely to serve low-income and minority students. The negative relationship between teacher turnover and school functioning, and the fact that turbulent schools are disproportionately likely to serve low income and minority students have important implications for both district and school-level policies. Specifically: 1. Teacher turnover rates are one indicator of school health, which school districts should consider when focusing on school improvements. Districts need to begin by developing the means to identify individual schools that experience high levels of teacher turnover; 2. Current district policies in implementing professional development for teachers in low-performing schools are inefficient when teachers do not remain in the schools in which they are trained; and 3. In order for low-performing schools to improve, districts need to consider providing incentive programs so that high quality teachers apply for, and remain in, these schools. Future research is needed to address the causal link between turnover, organizational functioning and student outcomes. Additionally, there is a need for research examining district policies that may facilitate teacher turnover within a district, including how districts place and transfer teachers, as well as how teachers’ salaries are budgeted.
Enhancing School-Based Prevention and Youth Development through Coordinated Social, Emotional, and Academic Learning (2003)
A comprehensive mission for schools is to educate students to be knowledgeable, responsible, socially skilled, healthy, caring, and contributing citizens. This mission is supported by the growing number of school-based prevention and youth development programs. Yet, the current impact of these programs is limited because of insufficient coordination with other components of school operations and inattention to implementation and evaluation factors necessary for strong program impact and sustainability. Widespread implementation of beneficial prevention programming requires further development of research-based, comprehensive school reform models that improve social, health, and academic outcomes; educational policies that demand accountability for fostering children’s full development; professional development that prepares and supports educators to implement programs effectively; and systematic monitoring and evaluation to guide school improvement.
This monograph examines the following questions: What contributes to a teen’s feeling of connectedness to school? Why do some adolescents feel attached to school while others do not? What individual and school characteristics predict the sense of belonging that protects our students from risky health behaviors? How does the overall pattern of friendship networks influence a feeling of connectedness? What role does an individual’s popularity play? The information reported in this monograph is based on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. This report finds that the level of connectedness across all schools studied was 3.6, out of a possible range of 1 to 5. While a majority of student experiences in the schools studied were positive, 31 percent of students did not feel connected to school. Disengaged youth are more likely to smoke cigarettes, have early sexual intercourse, or become involved in weapon-related violence. This report finds that the following leads to school connectedness: good classroom management; integration of friendship groups across lines of race, gender, and social status; students in smaller schools; and students participating in extracurricular activities during or after school. The following did not impact school connectedness: class size, school type and teacher qualifications. The study also found that schools with harsh discipline policies have a negative impact on school connectedness.
Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2007 (2007) http://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/crimeindicators2007/index.asp This report is the tenth in a series of annual publications produced jointly by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Institute of Education Sciences (IES), in the U.S. Department of Education, and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) in the U.S. Department of Justice. This report presents the most recent data available on school crime and student safety. The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, and principals. This report covers topics such as victimization, fights, bullying, classroom disorder, weapons, student perceptions of school safety, teacher injury, and availability and student use of drugs and alcohol. Indicators of crime and safety are compared across different population subgroups and over time. Data on crimes that occur outside of school grounds are offered as a point of comparison where available. Preliminary data show that among youth ages 5–18, there were 17 school-associated violent deaths from July 1, 2005, through June 30, 2006 (14 homicides and 3 suicides). In 2005, among students ages 12–18, there were about 1.5 million victims of nonfatal crimes at school, including 868,100 thefts and 628,200 violent crimes (simple assault and serious violent crime). There is some evidence that student safety has improved. The victimization rate of students ages 12–18 at school declined between 1992 and 2005. However, violence, theft, drugs, and weapons continue to pose problems in schools. During the 2005–06 school year, 86 percent of public schools reported that at least one violent crime, theft, or other crime occurred at their school. In 2005, 8 percent of students in grades 9–12 reported being threatened or injured with a weapon in the previous 12 months, and 25 percent reported that drugs were made available to them on school property. In the same year, 28 percent of students ages 12–18 reported having been bullied at school during the previous 6 months.
The past 30 years have seen widespread proliferation of prevention and positive youth development programs. During this time, prevention programs have been the subject of much evaluative study. More recently, the field has witnessed a greater focus on evaluation of programs emphasizing positive youth development, the subject of the present study. Interest in positive youth development has grown as a result of studies that show the same individual, family, school, and community factors often predict both positive (e.g., success in school) and negative (e.g., delinquency) outcomes for youth. Accordingly, the goals of this study were to: research and establish both theoretical and empirical definitions of positive youth development and related concepts; document and describe common denominators between risk and protective factors implicated in youth problem behavior; identify and summarize the results of evaluations of positive youth development interventions; and identify elements contributing to both the success and lack of success in positive youth development programs and program evaluations, as well as potential improvements in evaluation approaches. This study concluded that a wide range of positive youth development approaches can result in positive youth behavior outcomes and the prevention of youth problem behaviors. Nineteen effective programs showed positive changes in youth behavior, including significant improvements in interpersonal skills, quality of peer and adult relationships, self-control, problem solving, cognitive competencies, self-efficacy, commitment to schooling, and academic achievement. Twenty-four effective programs showed significant improvements in problem behaviors, including drug and alcohol use, school misbehavior, aggressive behavior, violence, truancy, high risk sexual behavior, and smoking. Although a broad range of strategies produced these results, the themes common to success involved methods to: strengthen social, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and moral competencies; build self-efficacy; shape messages from family and community about standards for positive youth behavior; increase healthy bonding with adults, peers and younger children; expand opportunities and recognition for youth who engage in positive behavior and activities; provide structure and consistency in program delivery; and intervene with youth for at least nine months or more.
Powerful Learning Environments: the Critical Link Between School and Classroom Cultures (2003) http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15327671ESPR0804_2 Schools serving large populations of students placed at risk have been the focus of reform for over a decade, with the assumption that school reform leads to classroom reform, resulting in improved student achievement. Student achievement data at the school level are typically used to judge the effectiveness of the reform. This practice assumes uniformity of implementation within the school. This study of classrooms within 4 Accelerated Schools Project (ASP) schools operationalizes the ASP principles, values, and concepts of powerful learning at the classroom level. Together, they form what is called a powerful learning environment (PLE). In addition, the study examines the extent to which PLE is implemented similarly in different classrooms and different schools, and analyzes the relation between degree of implementation and differences in student achievement. Data collection involved structured observations in 40 classrooms during English and language arts or mathematics instruction. Analysis of data indicates that more variation in implementation of PLE occurred within schools than between schools. The study also finds a correlation between degree of implementation and higher student achievement.
Ready Schools Project Community Audit 4th Annual Report (2007) http://www.shoresitesva.com/annualreport.pdf The Ready Schools Project (RSP) is a major initiative of DC VOICE. Now in its fourth year, the RSP was guided by DC VOICE’s Supports for Quality Teaching Framework as well as by current DCPS initiatives. The questions focused on whether teaching and learning systemic supports were in place for the opening of school. To ensure reliability and to adequately capture principals’ comments, volunteer teams were trained to administer the checklists, and then assigned to audit teams of two to five people. The principals were promised confidentiality: neither individuals nor school names will be identified in the resulting reports. This year’s huge outpouring of interest and support enabled us, for the first time, to expand the project to conduct audits at 137 schools from September 4th to October 5th, 2007. Thirty-seven of the schools have now participated all four years of the Project, resulting in the trend data presented in this report (please see DC VOICE Data Dashboard for four-year trends). The core checklist covered school staffing, professional development, teaching and learning conditions, and facilities. Also for the first time, four supplemental checklists on facilities, high schools, English Language Learners and Special Education were developed in conjunction with other non-profits (Parents United, 21st Century School Fund, Children’s Law Center, Youth Education Alliance, SHAPPE and the Joint Advisory Council for Linguistic and Cultural Affairs). This report presents the core findings for all 137 schools.
The 2007 Ready Schools Project contained a special supplement on high schools covering the transition of all 9th graders from junior highs to high schools, and the budgeting and assignment of school counselors. This report looks at key aspects of the high schools’ readiness in general, as well as focusing on the ninth grade transition. The recommendations at the end of the report are particularly important because of issues unique to high schools. For the 2007-08 school year, the 10 comprehensive high schools as well as 11 middle schools are in year one of restructuring under the federal legislation “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB). In order for DCPS to maintain federal funding, these schools will have to undergo a radical governance change or restructuring in the near future. While supports are vital at every grade, high schools provide the last opportunity to build the knowledge and skills students need to be successful at work, in college and in life.
This report reviews the research findings regarding the characteristics of effective dropout prevention programs. This includes the following: organization/ administration, school climate, service delivery/ instruction, instructional content/ curriculum, and staff/teacher culture. Program design and administration have an effect on the retention of at-risk students. Research has shown that schools-within-schools, low student-teacher ratios, and alternative schools have had some success in lowering dropout rates. Safe school climates, orderly, and non-threatening environments contribute to dropout prevention. Staff training to build cultural sensitivity and developing "family" atmospheres have also proven to be effective strategies. Instruction needs to be student-centered. Students at risk of dropping out should be identified as early as possible so that the appropriate intervention can be implemented. Research shows that early identification, family involvement, clear instructional objectives, and monitoring student progress are effective in dropout prevention. A combination of academic and work-based learning has been shown to be beneficial. Staff members in successful programs are committed to the program and have high standards for all students.
The Relationship of Character Education Implementation and Academic Achievement in Elementary Schools (2003)
For this report, applications from the 681 elementary schools applying for the California Distinguished Schools Award in 2000 were randomly selected, evaluated, and scored for character education implementation. Results were correlated with both the SAT9 and API rankings over a four-year period from 1999-2002. Schools with higher total character education implementation tended to have higher academic scores on academic measures for the year prior to their application, the year of their application and the subsequent two years. Small but positive correlations were found between three specific character education indicators: clean and secure physical environments; staff promotes and models character education; and students contribute in meaningful ways. Further, schools with higher character education scores had a small but positive correlation with schools that scored higher on California’s API and schools that had a higher percentage of students scoring at or above the 50th percentile on the SAT9.
The nuances of the application of schoolwide positive behavior supports (PBS) in an urban high school setting were investigated. Impact of implementation was measured using qualitative interviews and observations, including the School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET), Effective Behavior Support Survey, Student Climate Survey, and office disciplinary referrals. The results indicated that schoolwide PBS was implemented in an urban high school setting with some success. The overall level of implementation of PBS reached 80% as measured by the SET. Staff and teachers increased their level of perceived priority for implementing PBS in their school. A decrease in monthly discipline referrals to the office and the proportion of students who required secondary and tertiary supports was noted. These findings seem to indicate that PBS may be an important process for improving outcomes for teachers and students in urban high school settings.
In this report, 24 high schools that had received external recognition for excellence were examined. Lickona and Davidson’s goal was to find successful strategies in these schools and to develop generalizations about effective practice. Using focus groups, classroom observations, interviews, observations of school- specific programs, and analysis of program materials and archival data, the team developed portraits of the schools and their practices. From their findings, the authors developed six principles for creating an ethical learning community. These are the following: 1. develop shared purpose and identity; 2. align practices with desired outcomes and relevant research; 3. have a voice; take a stand; 4. take personal responsibility for continuous self-development; 5. practice collective responsibility for excellence and ethics; and 6. grapple with tough issues.
In this article, Jonathan Cohen argues that the goals of education need to be reframed to prioritize not only academic learning, but also social, emotional, and ethical competencies. Surveying the current state of research in the fields of social-emotional education, character education, and school-based mental health in the United States, Cohen suggests that social-emotional skills, knowledge, and dispositions provide the foundation for participation in a democracy and improved quality of life. Cohen discusses contemporary best practices and policy in relation to creating safe and caring school climates, home-school partnerships, and a pedagogy informed by social-emotional and ethical concerns. He also emphasizes the importance of scientifically sound measures of social-emotional and ethical learning, and advocates for action research partnerships between researchers and practitioners to develop authentic methods of evaluation. Cohen notes the gulf that exists between the evidence-based guidelines for social-emotional learning, which are being increasingly adopted at the state level, and what is taught in schools of education and practiced in preK-12 schools. Finally, he asserts that social, emotional, ethical, and academic education is a human right that all students are entitled to, and argues that ignoring this amounts to a social injustice.
Researchers and educators have recognized that typical school-wide approaches to discipline and the prevention and management of problem behavior are often insufficient to address the needs of many students in inner-city schools with high base rates of problem behavior. This article outlines critical issues and lessons learned in the planning and implementation of effective and self-sustaining Positive Behavior Support (PBS) efforts in inner-city schools. Among these issues are methods for the facilitation of school-university partnerships, the incorporation of PBS into existing comprehensive school improvement efforts, the maintenance of school-wide PBS efforts, and the formalization of exit strategies and arrangements for subsequent technical assistance. The importance of service integration, family support, youth development, and community development are emphasized in ensuring the effectiveness and sustainability of school-wide PBS efforts in inner-city settings.
The study was designed to examine the effects of a whole-school reform, the Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP), specifically designed to raise academic achievement of at-risk urban middle school students via interventions such as extended school day and year, rigorous curriculum, after-school access to teachers, and increased family-school connections. In the present mixed-methods design, qualitative (interviews and observations) and quantitative (school climate, survey, achievement) data were collected to determine first-year program implementation and student outcomes for the KIPP:DIAMOND (KIPP:DA) Academy, an inner city school in a large high-poverty urban district. For the achievement analyses, 49 KIPP:DA students were individually matched to highly comparable control students of the same ethnicity, SES, gender, and ability, who attended different district schools in the same neighborhood. Statistically significant and educationally meaningful advantages for KIPP:DA students were found on four out of six standardized tests. Results are interpreted in relation to key program elements coupled with the positive school climate and implementation outcomes obtained.
What Works In Character Education: A Research-Driven Guide for Educators (February 2005)
http://www.character.org/atf/cf/{77B36AC3-5057-4795-8A8F-9B2FCB86F3EB}/practitioners_518.pdf Over the past few decades, educators have become increasingly interested in implementing character education in their districts, schools, and classrooms, and the pace of this expansion seems to be accelerating. There is a rapidly growing, but still quite inadequate, level of funding available for both practice and research in character education. There is also a bewildering variety of programs, vendors, consultants, and concepts for educators to choose from in their search to improve their schools and positively impact the development and learning of their students. Nevertheless, there is relatively little in the way of systematic scientific guidance to aid in navigating this profusion of options vying for the educator’s attention and limited resources. For this reason, the Character Education Partnership (CEP) has joined with the John Templeton Foundation to review the existing research base on character education in order to determine what we know about what really works. Thus, the central goal of this project, funded by the Templeton Foundation and implemented by CEP under the guidance of the two authors, is to derive practical conclusions about character education implementation from the existing research literature. This document is intended for educators. It is intended to provide practical advice derived from the review of the research. What follows is a brief overview of the “What Works in Character Education” (WWCE) project, a description of the main findings, and a set of guidelines on effective character education practice, along with some cautions regarding how to interpret these findings.
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